Pulmonary Diseases and the Alveolar Capillary Membrane

Here are some of the following pulmonary diseases:
*Gas trapping - inability get air out of the lungs
*Emphysema - a lung condition in which the alveolar air sacs are worn
*Chronic Bronchitis - a reversible lung disease in which there are inflamed airways
*Pneumothorax - a condition in which there is air inside the thoracic
*Pleural effusion - there is an excessive build-up of fluid in the pleural space
*Tuberculosis - an infectious disease that has been seen a recent rise in occurence.

The alveolar capillary membrane is divided into four layers namely the surfactant, actual tissue, interstitial, and the capillary epithelium. In the actual tissue layer, there are three types of cells which are the squamous pneumocytes, granular pneumocytes and macrophages helping together to support the alveoli.

The Respiratory System

Aside from the cardiovascular system that takes in oxygen and trashes out carbon dioxide throughout the body, the respiratory system is also responsible for that same task. The respiratory system is often known for breathing (inhaling and exhaling oxygen). It is divided into two tracts : upper and lower. This week, we have tackled the upper tract of the respiratory system.

In the upper tract of the respiratory system, its primary role is to breathe in oxygen from outside to eliminate carbon dioxide and this repeats infinitely. The major components are the lungs, upper and lower airways, alveoli, thoracic cage, and muscles such as the diaphragm. It has two processes of which it takes in oxygen and carbon dioxide out : ventilation for bulk movement of the air down to to the terminal end of the lungs and respiration for the process gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. There are two kinds of respiration which are the external and the internal. External has something to do with gas exchange between the blood and the outside environment while the internal is the exchange of oxygenated blood to the cells and tissues of the body. Note that a person can normally hold their breath around 4-6 minutes otherwise they would die of oxygen depletion exceeding that time.

The function of the upper airway tract of the respiratory system is to regulate body temperature, filtering particles, humidifying gases, provides sense of smell, produces sounds, and ventilates gases down to the airways. It is made up of the nose, sinuses, and the pharynx. In the nasal cavity, there are three regions overall. These are the vestibular, oflactory, and the respiratory region. Finally, in the tracheobronchial tree, it is divided into several parts and branches on each side of the lungs. Normally, it has 19 branches with the diameter of 1.6mm (branches 4-9), 1mm (branches 10-15 and 19), and 0.5mm (branch 16).

The Cardiac Cycle and The Electric Pathway

As we tackle further regarding the basic concepts of the cardiovascular system, it is composed of the main organ, heart, which pumps blood through out the body by collecting deoxygenated blood converting them to be oxygenated to store nutrients in other parts of the body. This is done through the arteries, veins, and capillaries.

The cardiac cycle concentrates more on the rate or the number of beats of your heart per minute. This factor can greatly affect the performance of an individual. For instance, let us compare a man eating balanced meals and exercises regularly while the other not so. As we notice the rate and the number of beats of the heart of the first man is fairly running around 70-80 beats per minute while the other one has a slower rate which indicates potential health problems in the future. In this lesson, there are specific terms that are required to remember and here are some :

*systole - the contraction phase of the heart

*diastrole - the relaxation phase of the heart

*anastomoses - the interconnection web of the heart and its other circulatory parts like the veins, arteries, and the capillaries.

In the second lesson, we can consider the heart serving as an electric pathway for other parts and systems of the body to perform their tasks.

The Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system also known as the circulatory system contains major parts and organs of the body. This system assists all other parts of the body supplying oxygenated blood from the heart to the other different parts of the body containing nutrients required. This can be done through arteries, veins, and capillaries. Each component of the heart has different functions. Arteries are the ones which have the color red and they carry out the oxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs while veins do the opposite and has blue color. Capillaries, on the other hand, are the supporting structures of the veins and arteries connecting them and collecting the oxygenated blood in and out of the heart. This process is called the carbon dioxide process. It explains why we generally breath in oxygen and carbon dioxide out.
This process works starting either by the superior vena cava or the inferior vena cava meaning the blood either coming from the upper or lower parts of the body then to the right atrium which then is followed by the tricuspid valve then to the right ventricle then to pulmonary valve then to the pulmonary artery. After it goes to the pulmonary artery it goes to the lungs in exchange for oxygen through the carbon dioxide. First before it jumps into the heart through the pulmonary vein then to the left atrium, to the mitral valve, then to the left ventricle which then passes through the aortic valve and the aorta then finally the oxygenated blood will be released through the different parts of the body.

Sense of Hearing and Sight Introduction to the Cardiovascular System

As we had tackled the lesson sense of hearing and sight last week, this is a deeper topic about them. Let's first discuss about the sense of hearing. In the concepts of hearing, the ear is divided into three sections : the outer, middle, and inner ear. These divisions contain some of the most important parts and their functions in order to safely transmit and receive sound waves at the right frequency. Otherwise, we would've gone deaf so easily. In the outer ear, contains the pinna (auricle), auditory canal (external auditory meatus), and the eardrum (tympanic membrane). They are the ones responsible for first receiving the sound waves coming from outside and serve as the first line of protection against unstable frequencies. The middle ear we have the hammer (malleus), the anvil (incus), and the stirrup (stapes). They are known in also helping transmit sound waves and conduct them to send messages to the brain. Finally, we have the inner ear having vestibular nerves, semicircular canals, and the cochlea. They are mainly responsible for converting sound waves in order to send messages to the nervous system then to the brain.

The sense of sight is a lot different from sense of hearing. This does not focus more on sound waves but rather the reflection and the refraction of light. It can be either concave or convex as we learn in advanced physics. Our eyes, like the ears, are very delicate, can be easily damaged, and divided into two liquid fillings : aqueous and vitreous humor. They are the ones that make our eyes very watery which is important for removing dirt and other foreign agents away from our bodies. However, there are some pathogens that can resists those liquid fillings and make worsening conditions. One of these abnormal conditions is commonly what we call "sore eyes" or in medical terms conjunctivitis. Conjunctivitis frequently occurs whenever a pathogen or an irritant caused either by allergy or the pathogen itself.

Now we have the introduction to the cardiovascular system also known as the circulatory system. The main organ that consists of the circulatory system is the heart which is the most important part of our body. It helps the other parts of the body like the lungs to breathe in oxygen and release carbon dioxide through exhaling. The heart does this by its subparts which are the artery, veins, and the capillaries. Arteries are known to have the color red, veins for the color of blue, and capillaries for brown-like color. They aren't exactly like the RBCs and the WBCs, but they are somehow related because they also excrete waste but only on the oxygen/air that it's receiving and releasing. Unlike blood cells, they only carry out wastes from foreign agents. The circulatory system is also composed of blood vessels which is a cycle significant for carrying out the oxygen and carbon dioxide in a proper order.

Introductory topic : Eyes and Ears

Both eyes and ears are very important for every different parts of our body. They are connected with several branches of the brain, nerves, cells, bones, and muscles. The reason why they are both important is that because they are also part of the receptors in our body but only in different areas.

Our eyes is very delicate and can be easily damaged. They are the ones that serve as like a camera having lens that magnify our surroundings. Without them, fatal accident is the result. The eyes are composed of cones that help lenses, pupils, iris, and cornea to perform their function. It helps us see our environment to avoid danger, and to adapt. They can be also a temperature regulator meaning that they can sore at times.

Ears, on the other hand, are similar to eyes but they transmit sound waves at different ranges. They are also very delicate and can be easily damaged. When examining an ear, we can say that it's divided into three regions : external, middle, and inner. In each region, there are several parts having specific functions. And each of them have different tasks making them significant. We should avoid loud noises frequently, otherwise, it may lead to ear infection which is an introductory sign of deafness.

All I can say about the two senses of our body is that they should be taken care of properly. Otherwise, when we lose those senses we may be able to have a hard time catching up our surroundings.

Video Blog :"How pimples are formed in our skin?"

The Endocrine System (concepts and diseases)

The endocrine system is made up of several chemicals and parts called hormones. They are the ones responsible for maintaining our temperature in a different environment, changing and growing of our bodies, and for sexual reproduction. This is also the reason why we generally, in puberty, have acne, pimples, blackheads, whiteheads, and other tones of bacteria and viruses entering and causing the skin to swell and form marks.

If you ever ask or wonder why the endocrine system doesn't do like anything beneficial for us, then you may be wrong. It may also be not noticeable but the endocrine system is also significant in taking the role for our body to grow. Because without the endocrine system, we probably might die in another environment. Just for instances, our body's temperature is constant which is 37oC. And we all know, that we are supposed to die when we live in a colder or a hotter temperature. But why didn't it happen? That's because the power of our endocrine system takes over. It helps us regulate and maintain temperature in order for us to adapt our surroundings and environment whether it is changing or not.

The endocrine system is composed of small specific parts mainly locating in the specified parts of the body like in the brain, the small intestine, the neck, and even our genitals! Primarily, it is composed of the diencephalon which has four parts : pituitary gland, hypothalamus, thalamus, and pineal gland. Each part of the diencephalon has its own responsibilities and functions required to carry out. They are also considered as the major parts of the endocrine organs.

There are two types of feedback in an endocrine system : positive and negative. To differentiate the two, positive feedback increases the magnitude of a changes made by any other endocrine organs. While negative feedback only controls and monitors the whole system to bring disrupted homeostatic values back to point.

Aside from feedbacks, our endocrine system also has three basic ways of controlling and maintaining our body. First is neutral (relating to the nervous system), hormonal (controlled by the release of hormones from another gland), and humoral (controlled by body fluids).

Of all the diseases and disorders of the endocrine system I find the anabolic steroid most interesting. It is caused when steroid hormone levels are tightly controlled by the body leading to side effects. What also interests me is that the size of our body will be affected as well when we take too much steroids (drug). Meaning, that the size of a male's testes will decrease, bigger breasts, and higher cholesterol. Steroids are usually used for athletes to easily gain or lose weight in a much easier way. Researches say that people drinking steroids have much bigger bodies in an earlier time than people only taking regular exercises. That's why the government bans steroids for reasonable purposes.

Brain diseases

Like all other parts of the body, our brain also have several abnormalities and diseases that are risky. As generally known, the brain is one of the most important part of the body aside from the heart because it is the center of all the nervous system allowing us to sense danger, to think, and have intelligence. The brain also has several components that releases hormones such as the hypothalamus and pituitary gland that regulates other hormone controls and levels.

Here are some of the following diseases of the brain :

*Inflammation of the brain - leads to problems such as vision loss, weakness, and paralysis.

*Stroke - causes the loss of brain cells

*Brain tumors - presses on nerves affecting the brain function

*Alzheimer's disease - a genetic disease which is caused by unknown factors

*Paralysis - inability to control voluntary movements

a. spastic - characterized by muscle rigidity or increase muscle tone (hypertonia) and overactive reflexes (hypereflexia)

b. flaccid - characterized by floppy muscles decreasing reflexes (hyporeflexia) and muscle tone (hypotonia)

*Cerebral palsy - a collection of movement disorders that are not progressive occurring in childhood.

*Subdural hemetoma - a pool of blood between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater in the subdural space caused by head injuries.

*Huntington disease - a progressive genetic disorder causing detrioration of neurons in the basal nuclei and the cerebral cortex.

*Cerebral

The Brain and Disorders in the Nervous System

The brain is one of the most largest and important component of our body and the entire nervous system. Without it, dendrites and axons wouldn't be able to perform their tasks due to lack of commandments. Because the brain is responsible for telling our nerves to avoid danger. Our brain is mainly composed of cerebrum, cerebellum, and the brain stem. Cerebrum has a surface broken by ridges and grooves and is divided into longitudinal (right hemisphere) and fissure (left hemisphere). It is also divided into four sections : frontal(posterior), parietal(posterior), occipital(posterior), and temporal(inferior). Inside the temporal is the insula which is known for its coordinate autonomic function. Cerebellum is posterior to the brain. Its function is to monitor out sensory, motor coordination, and balance. It is also known as the "little brain". Brain stem is inferior covered by the cerebrum receiving sensory information. It has three sections : medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain.

Inside the brain, we can find diencephalon. It is mainly divided into four parts : thalamus (for information to the cerebrum), hypothalamus (hormone level, temperature, water-balance, thirst, appetite, and emotion regulation), pineal body (for secretion of melatonin), and pituitary gland(for secretion of other hormones).

Here are the following common disorders of the nervous system :

*Myasthenia gravis - disorder in which the immune system attacks & destroys receptors at the neuromuscular junction.
*Guillain-Barre Syndrome - form of peripheral neuropathy caused by inflammation of pheripheral nerves
*Botulism - form of paralysis caused by toxins produced by the bacterium Clostridium botilinum.
*Meningitis - the disease of the meninges which is responsible for protecting the nerves.
a. Viral - milder disease caused by viruses entering the mouth and travel to the meninges
b. Bacterial - fatal infection causing bacteria to enter the upper respiratory system to the meninges

Nervous System

As all part of the system is significant in building up and maintaining our bodies, the nervous system is the one assisting the other parts of the body to perform their functions/task. The nervous system or known as the body's control center is often well known for the connection with the brain along with the spinal cord. That's why doctors say that we have to keep standing and sitting straight or else our spine won't be working that well. It's because the spine holds and protects the spinal cord which is responsible for the neurons, dendrites, and axons to do their tasks such as sending and receiving signals from the skin to the brain. Nervous system is divided into two types. First is the central nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord and the peripheral nervous sytem which cmposes of nervous outside of the brain and spinal cord. Peripheral nervous system has two types one is somatic and the other is autonomic. Somatic is the voluntary nerves such as the skeletal muscles while autonomic is the other way around such as smooth, cardiac muscles and glands. Autonomic has two branches. One is parasympathetic and the other is sympathetic. Parasympathetic is for maintenance and sympathetic is for the alert system.
The nervous system does not only compose of "vein-and-artery-like" structures, but it has its own tissue called the nervous tissue. This is the part where neuroglia and neurons came. Neuroglia has several functions and has four types of CNS cells. Astrocytes for metabolic and structural support, microglia for removal of debris, oligodendrocytes for lipid insulation (myelin), & ependymal cells for covering and lining of cavitites. Neurons, on the other hand, has two types of PNS cells. Schwann cells produce myelin and satellite cells support other different kinds of cells. Inside a neuron is made up of dendrites that receives information from the environment and the axon that sends signals to other cells. Note that synapses is a term that has the axon terminal and a receiving cell after sending signals.
Impulse conduction is the speed of how nerves send and receive signals to other cells, to the spinal cord, and to the brain. It can be determined through the presence of myelin and the diameter of the axon. Myelin is the lipid insulation produced by oligodendrocytes which is in the myelin sheath building up nodes of Ranvier similar to the muscles.
In the concept of chemical synapses, there are different types of cells. One is the polarized cells which has more negative charges, depolarized having positive charges, hyperpolarized which has twice the negative charges than the polarized and repolarization for converting negative to positive charge and vice versa.